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Foundations of Psychology
What are the basic principles that shape human thought and behavior?This book explores the core frameworks that form the foundation of psychological science. From the interaction of biology, environment, and culture to the ongoing dialogue between nature and n...
Systems of Power and Economy
Every society develops mechanisms to regulate behavior and manage economic life—usually through a structured form of governance known as the state. This section explores how different systems of power and economy shape public life, influence individual choice...
Health and Social Control
Health is never just a biological condition—it’s a social category shaped by norms, institutions, and systems of power.This book explores how societies define illness, assign responsibility, and enforce compliance through medical and behavioral frameworks. Fro...
Research Methods
Where does knowledge begin? This book introduces the essential language and logic of social science research — not as a full guide, but as a foundation for asking better questions and recognizing how evidence shapes understanding.
Sociology Concepts and Theories
This book introduces the key concepts and theoretical frameworks that form the foundation of sociological thinking. From broad perspectives like functionalism and conflict theory to specific ideas such as the sociological imagination and social roles, each ent...
Mind and Method
This collection explores the essential tools of disciplined thought — including critical thinking, rationality, empiricism, and skepticism. These concepts form the backbone of reasoned inquiry across the social sciences and beyond. Rather than offering rigid d...
Biopsychology
What drives thought, emotion, and action? This book looks beneath the surface, tracing behavior to the biological roots of the brain and nervous system.
Psychology Concepts and Theories
How do we make sense of human behavior? This book introduces core psychological concepts and theoretical perspectives that shape how we study the mind.
Cognitive Processes
How does the mind process, filter, and act on information—often without us even realizing it?This book examines the mental systems that operate beneath the surface of awareness, shaping perception, memory, decision-making, and attention. From the concept of du...
Historical Perspectives
Consciousness
This book explores various aspects of human awareness, including wakefulness, sleep, and dreams. This collection provides insights into these states, examining their impact on mental processes and daily life.
Sensation and Perception
Learning
Memory
Research Design and Data
What separates opinion from insight? This chapter explores how research is structured — from study design to data collection — in the search for meaningful psychological understanding.
Bias and Error
Even the most thorough researchers have biases that may potentially impact their research. This chapter identifies some of the most common biases and errors that can lead to inaccurate research results.
Measurement Concepts
Using accurate and effective methods to measure data that is collected during a research study is essential. This section provides an overview of some of the basic terminology related to measurement concepts.
Research Ethics and Process
Ensuring that researchers adhere to ethical standards when working with human participants is essential to ensuring the safety and well-being of research participants. This section provides an overview of some of the basic terminology related to research ethi...
Core Concepts
Before asking questions, we must understand the tools. This chapter lays the groundwork for critical thinking in psychological research, covering key terms, assumptions, and the logic behind inquiry.
Brain
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Genetics
Nervous System
Endocrine System
Power and Authority
Power: The Ability to Compel At its core, power is the capacity to impose one’s will—even against resistance. It may be exercised through persuasion, coercion, or force. Power does not require consent or approval. It exists wherever one person or group has the...
Medicalization
Medicalization Medicalization is the process by which non-medical problems become defined and treated as medical issues—often in the form of diagnoses, treatments, or interventions. This concept is central to understanding how power, culture, and institutions ...
Sick Role
The Sick Role The concept of the sick role was introduced by sociologist Talcott Parsons in 1951 to describe the social expectations surrounding illness and medical treatment in modern societies. Rather than viewing illness solely as a biological event, the si...
Biopsychosocial Approach
Definition The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. It plays a crucial role in controlling vital bodily functions, such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. Often referred to as the "lifeline" of the...
Dual Processing
Definition Dual processing is the principle that the mind operates on two levels at once—a conscious track and an unconscious track—both working in parallel. Two-Track Mind: Conscious processing: Deliberate, intentional thought (e.g., solving a problem, plan...
Nature vs. Nurture Issue
Definition: The nature–nurture issue is a long-standing debate over the relative influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental experience (nurture) in shaping psychological traits and behavior. Modern Perspective: Today’s psychological science re...
Providing Aid and Assistance
Societies provide assistance for a variety of reasons—some rooted in compassion, others in pragmatism, and still others in control. While motivations differ, most systems of aid can be understood through three general goals: promoting self-sufficiency, ensurin...
Perspectives on Forced Assistance
At what point—if ever—should a society require someone to accept help? This question rests at the intersection of personal liberty, public interest, and moral philosophy. While voluntary support is broadly accepted, mandated assistance remains controversial, e...
Case Study
Definition An in-depth study of a single case or a small group. Example A researcher wants to study the process of recovery from depression. She conducts structured and/or unstructured interviews with one individual, or a small group of individuals, who have...
Confounding Variable
Definition An outside influence that affects the dependent and independent variables, potentially distorting results. Example A researcher is attempting to establish whether there is a relationship between social status and resilience. The research design fa...
Construct
Definition An abstract concept used in research (e.g., intelligence, stress). Example A researcher is attempting to identify the factors that contribute to happiness. Since happiness is an abstract concept, it is a construct that needs to be explicitly defin...
Correlation
Definition A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related. Example Correlation is measured on a scale of -1.0 to 1.0. Scores closer to zero indicate an insignificant relationship between two variables. Negative scores ind...
Cross-Sectional Study
Definition A study that analyzes data from a population at a single point in time. Example A researcher wishes to examine mental health issues among college students. He gathers data from a sample of students, assessing various aspects of mental health and a...
Dependent Variable
Definition The variable that is measured in a study to see the effect of the independent variable. Example A researcher wants to study the effects of a new form of therapy on people experiencing anxiety. A sample is selected and randomly assigned to either a ...
Experiment
Definition A research method that involves manipulating one variable to determine its effect on another. Example A researcher conducts a true experimental study to determine if a new 12-week anti-bullying program improves students’ self-esteem. Two hundred hi...
Hypothesis
Hypothesis Category: Research Design and Data Tags: #research-methods Definition A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. Example A researcher, after reviewing the academic literature related to narcissistic characteristics...
Independent Variable
Definition The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Example A researcher wants to study the effects of a new form of therapy on people experiencing anxiety. A sample is selected and randomly assigned to either a contro...
Informed Consent
Definition Ensuring participants are fully aware of the study and voluntarily agree to participate. Example Informed consent is a way to make sure that research participants are fully aware of the nature of the research before they consent to participate. An...
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Definition A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met. Example The Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews research proposed by a research who wants to determine the impact of isolation on cognitive ability. The procedur...
Literature Review
Definition A summary of existing research related to a specific topic. Example A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and job satisfaction. In preparation, she conducts a thorough review of the research literature that has alr...