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Definition The Law of Effect, introduced by psychologist Edward Thorndike in the early 20th century, is a principle in psychology that states behaviors are shaped by their consequences. If a behavior results in a positive outcome (a reward), it is more likely ...

Definition Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion suggests that our emotions are not directly caused by external events or stimuli but rather by our internal cognitive processes—how we interpret and evaluate those events. According to this theory, em...

Definition Learned helplessness is a psychological concept describing a state where individuals feel powerless to change their circumstances after repeatedly experiencing failure or negative outcomes despite their efforts. It occurs when people associate their...

Definition Learning refers to the process by which individuals acquire new knowledge, skills, or behaviors through experience, study, or instruction. It involves changes in behavior, thought processes, or understanding that persist over time and are not due to...

Definition A summary of existing research related to a specific topic. Example A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and job satisfaction. In preparation, she conducts a thorough review of the research literature that has alr...

Definition The limbic system is a group of interconnected brain structures that play a crucial role in regulating emotions, memory, and behaviors related to survival, such as fear, aggression, and reward-seeking. It includes key regions like the amygdala (invo...

Definition Locus of Control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they have control over their own lives. It is a psychological concept that describes whether people see events in their lives as being caused by their own actions (internal locus) or...

Definition Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist from the late 19th century, proposed a theory that linked criminal behavior to physical traits, viewing criminals as "atavistic" or throwbacks to earlier stages of human evolution. He believed individuals wi...

Definition Research that involves repeated observations of the same variables over time. Example A researcher initiates a study to examine the development of social skills among a group of children. The study begins with a group of 5-year-olds, and the resear...

Definition Long-term memory refers to the brain's ability to store information over extended periods of time, often years or even a lifetime. Unlike short-term memory, which holds small amounts of information temporarily (like a phone number you just heard), l...

Definition The "looking glass self" is a sociological concept introduced by Charles Horton Cooley, which suggests that individuals develop their self-image based on how they believe others perceive them. This means your sense of self is not just internal but a...

Definition In sociology, magic refers to a set of practices and beliefs that involve the use of symbols, rituals, or actions intended to influence events, outcomes, or natural phenomena through supernatural means. It's important to distinguish this from religi...

Definition The Malthusian Theory of Population Growth, introduced by Thomas Malthus in 1798, suggests that population grows exponentially while food production increases linearly. This imbalance leads to resource shortages and other challenges. The theory outl...

Definition Manifest Functions These are the overt, intentional roles that social structures or behaviors play. They are the obvious purposes we intend when engaging in a particular action or institution. Latent Functions These are the hidden or unintended cons...

Definition The Marxist Theory of Population Growth is a sociological perspective that examines how population growth and demographic changes are influenced by broader economic and social structures, particularly class dynamics and modes of production. Accordin...

Definition Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943. It suggests that human behavior is driven by a series of needs arranged in a hierarchical order, from the most basic physiological requirements t...

Definition Mass hysteria, also known as collective hysteria or mass delusion, is a sociological phenomenon where a large group of people experiences intense fear, anxiety, or excitement about a perceived threat or situation. This belief spreads rapidly within ...

Definition In sociology, a master status is the social position that dominates all other statuses an individual holds and becomes the primary way others identify or interact with them. It often shapes a person’s self-concept and influences how they are treated...

Definition Material culture refers to the physical objects, artifacts, and built environments created by humans within a particular society or historical context. These items reflect the values, beliefs, practices, and social structures of the people who produ...

Definition The process of assigning numbers or labels to phenomena according to specific rules. Example A researcher wishes to identify whether there is a relationship between self-esteem and happiness. In order to measure these abstract concepts, the resear...