Research Methods
Where does knowledge begin? This book introduces the essential language and logic of social science research — not as a full guide, but as a foundation for asking better questions and recognizing how evidence shapes understanding.
Bias and Error
Even the most thorough researchers have biases that may potentially impact their research. This ...
Confounding Variable
Definition An outside influence that affects the dependent and independent variables, potentially...
Observer Bias
Definition When the researcher's expectations influence the data. Example In a 1963 study conduc...
Sampling Bias
Definition When the sample is not representative of the population. Example A researcher wishes ...
Social Desirability Bias
Definition When participants give answers they think are socially acceptable. Example In a study...
Core Concepts
Before asking questions, we must understand the tools. This chapter lays the groundwork for criti...
Hypothesis
Hypothesis Category: Research Design and Data Tags: #research-methods Definition A testable pred...
Null Hypothesis
Definition A statement that there is no effect or no relationship between variables. Example A r...
Replication
Definition Replication refers to the process of repeating an experiment or study under similar co...
Research Problem
Definition The issue or topic that a researcher seeks to address. Example A researcher is review...
Research Question
Definition A question that guides the focus of a research study. Example A researcher has previo...
Theory
Definition A set of principles that explain and predict phenomena. Example In sociology, structu...
Measurement Concepts
Using accurate and effective methods to measure data that is collected during a research study is...
Construct
Definition An abstract concept used in research (e.g., intelligence, stress). Example A research...
Measurement
Definition The process of assigning numbers or labels to phenomena according to specific rules. ...
Operational Definition
Definition A precise explanation of how a concept will be measured in a study. Example A researc...
Reliability
Definition The consistency of a measure or test over time or across different observers. Example...
Validity
Definition The degree to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure. Example A qu...
Research Design and Data
What separates opinion from insight? This chapter explores how research is structured — from stud...
Case Study
Definition An in-depth study of a single case or a small group. Example A researcher wants to st...
Correlation
Definition A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related. E...
Cross-Sectional Study
Definition A study that analyzes data from a population at a single point in time. Example A res...
Dependent Variable
Definition The variable that is measured in a study to see the effect of the independent variable...
Experiment
Definition A research method that involves manipulating one variable to determine its effect on a...
Independent Variable
Definition The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable. Exa...
Literature Review
Definition A summary of existing research related to a specific topic. Example A researcher want...
Longitudinal Study
Definition Research that involves repeated observations of the same variables over time. Example...
Observational Research
Definition Research in which the investigator observes and records behavior without manipulating ...
Population
Definition The entire group of individuals relevant to a particular research question. Example A...
Qualitative Research
Definition Research involving non-numerical data, often used to understand concepts or experience...
Quantitative Research
Definition Research involving numerical data and statistical analysis. Example A researcher want...
Sample
Definition A subset of a population selected for study. Example A researcher is interested in vo...
Survey
Definition A method of data collection using questionnaires or interviews to gather information f...
Research Ethics and Process
Ensuring that researchers adhere to ethical standards when working with human participants is ess...