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Overview David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, widely regarded as one of the greatest figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. A key figure in the history of modern Western philosophy, Hume's empiricism and skepti...

Overview René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist whose work laid the foundation for modern philosophy and analytic geometry. Often called the "father of modern philosophy," Descartes is renowned for his contributions t...

Overview William James (1842-1910) was an influential American philosopher and psychologist who is often regarded as the father of modern American psychology. He was a key figure in the development of pragmatism, a philosophical tradition that emphasizes the p...

Overview Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist and a major contributor to modern sociology. He is best known for his contributions to the understanding of social norms, social structures, social groups, and social institutions. Durkheim's work focused on how...

Overview Robert K. Merton (1910-2003) was a highly influential American sociologist, considered one of the founding figures of modern sociology. Moving beyond grand theory, Merton focused on middle-range theory, which involved developing empirically testable e...

Overview Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and economist, widely considered a foundational figure in political economy. Often described as the “father of modern economics,” Smith’s work moved beyond mercantilism to advocate for a system f...

Overview Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German sociologist, economist, and political scientist regarded as one of the founding fathers of modern sociology. His work transcends disciplinary boundaries, significantly influencing fields like history, political scien...

Overview John B. Watson (1878-1958) was an American psychologist who is widely considered the founder of behaviorism. Rejecting the introspective methods prevalent in early psychology (largely influenced by structuralism and functionalism) Watson championed a ...

Key Ideas Anarchism is built on several foundational principles: Individual Freedom: Anarchists argue that true freedom cannot exist under systems of oppression or domination, whether from the state, corporations, or other hierarchical institutions. They adv...

Definition De jure segregation refers to the enforced separation of people based on race, ethnicity, or other characteristics through laws, policies, or official actions. Unlike de facto segregation, which occurs due to social or economic conditions without ex...

Comparative advantage is a fundamental concept in economic theory, particularly in the context of international trade. It was first introduced by David Ricardo in the early 19th century. Definition Comparative advantage refers to the ability of a country, firm...

Overview Conservatism is a political and philosophical ideology that emphasizes preserving traditional social institutions, cultural norms, and established ways of life. Rooted in the 18th-century Enlightenment debates, conservatism emerged as a response to ra...

Overview Dialectical Materialism is a philosophical framework that was developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century. It is a materialist theory, meaning it emphasizes the role of matter and material conditions in shaping society and hist...

Economic systems are frameworks within which resources are allocated and goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. They vary in terms of control over economic activities, ranging from government-dominated systems to market-driven ones. Below ...

Definition External control mechanisms in sociology refer to the systems, rules, and institutions designed to regulate individual and group behavior from the outside. These mechanisms ensure conformity to societal norms, laws, and expectations through enforcem...

Overview Globalization is a broad term describing the increasing interconnectedness of nations through trade, investment, culture, migration, and technology. It’s not new. People have been interacting across borders for centuries. The speed and scope of this ...

Definition The Hawthorne Effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals alter their behavior simply because they are aware that they are being observed. This effect is often seen in research studies or workplace settings, where people tend to act differentl...

Definition Ideology refers to a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape how individuals or groups understand the world, their place in it, and the way they should behave or interact with others. It acts like a framework through which people interpret even...

Definition Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology, is a field that applies psychological principles to workplace settings. It aims to improve efficiency, job satisfaction, and overall organizational effectiveness by studying how people think and behave at ...

Definition Internal control mechanisms refer to the psychological or social processes through which individuals regulate their own behavior, thoughts, and emotions without external enforcement. These mechanisms help people adhere to societal norms, rules, and ...