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Definition Non-associative learning refers to a type of learning process where an organism learns about a single stimulus or event without forming associations between different stimuli or events. Unlike associative learning (e.g., classical conditioning), non...

Definition Nonmaterial culture refers to the intangible aspects of a society that include shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and practices. Unlike material culture, which consists of physical objects like tools, clothing, or buildings, nonmaterial cul...

Definition Nonverbal social interaction refers to the way people communicate and connect without using spoken or written words. It involves body language, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, tone of voice, and other nonverbal cues that convey messages, ...

Definition    Normative social influence refers to the tendency of people to adjust their behavior, attitudes, or   beliefs to fit in with a group or society. It occurs when individuals conform to meet the expectations of others or gain acceptance and approval...

Definition A nuclear family is a family unit consisting of two parents (typically a mother and father) and their biological children living together under one roof. It is considered the most common family structure in many societies, emphasizing close familial...

Definition A statement that there is no effect or no relationship between variables. Example A researcher is examining the impact of two distinct teaching methods on student comprehension. The researcher develops a hypothesis that one method will have a grea...

Definition Obedience in psychology refers to a behavior where an individual follows the commands or instructions of an authority figure, even if those actions go against their personal judgment or desires. It involves conforming to rules, orders, or demands fr...

Definition Object permanence is a cognitive milestone in child development where an infant learns to understand that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Before this understanding develops, babies may appear confused or u...

Definition Observational learning is a process where individuals acquire knowledge, skills, or behaviors by watching and imitating others, often referred to as models. This type of learning occurs when someone attentively observes a model's actions, retains th...

Definition Research in which the investigator observes and records behavior without manipulating variables. Example A researcher wishes to gain a better understanding of consumer behavior in big box stores. The researcher observes customer behavior as they i...

Definition When the researcher's expectations influence the data. Example In a 1963 study conducted by Robert Rosenthal and Kermit Fode, students were given rats that were either identified as "maze bright" or "maze dull," and asked to run experiments with th...

Definition Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders (OCRDs) are a group of mental health conditions characterized by persistent intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses (obsessions) that cause significant anxiety or distress. To alleviate this discomfort, ind...

Definition The occipital lobe is one of the four main regions of the brain, located at the back of the cerebral cortex. It is primarily responsible for processing visual information, such as recognizing colors, shapes, and movements. The occipital lobe works c...

Definition The olfactory system is the part of the body responsible for detecting and processing smells. It includes the nose, which contains specialized sensory cells called olfactory receptors, as well as parts of the brain that interpret these signals to id...

Definition Operant conditioning is a learning process in which an individual’s behavior is modified by its consequences. It occurs when a person or animal learns to associate specific actions with rewards (reinforcements) or punishments, leading them to repeat...

Definition A precise explanation of how a concept will be measured in a study. Example A researcher is attempting to identify the factors that contribute to happiness. Since happiness is an abstract concept, it is a construct that needs to be explicitly defi...

Definition: Organic solidarity refers to a type of social cohesion where individuals in a society are connected through their specialized roles and interdependence rather than shared values or beliefs. It arises in more complex societies where the division of ...

Definition The overjustification effect is a psychological phenomenon where people’s intrinsic motivation (doing something because they enjoy it or find it inherently satisfying) decreases when extrinsic rewards (external incentives like money, prizes, or prai...

Definition Parasomnia refers to a category of sleep disorders characterized by unusual behaviors, movements, or experiences during sleep or while transitioning into or out of sleep. These events often involve partial arousal from sleep and can include activiti...

Definition The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is part of the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary bodily functions. It is often called the "rest and digest" system because it helps the body relax, conserve energy, and maintain normal func...